A prolonged aerobic base period such as suggested by the MAF approach will enable an athlete to improve his pace at this heart rate by between 60 to 120 seconds per kilometre. He will feel strong and relaxed while running within this zone and almost surely have avoided any injuries due to hard or stressful running. Although it may be possible to extend this form of training forwards, right up to the coveted spring or summer race, it is more probable that he will feel the desire to improve both speed and muscular strength in order to perform at his best during the racing season.
This follows “The Linear” model of Training in which the training protocol moves from a base period in which there is high volume but low intensity, through a transitionary period of speed and strength building towards peak performance, during which time intensity is increased and volume is reduced. This approach was first put forward by the New Zealand coach Arthur Lydiard (“Running to the Top” – Lydiard A. 1998) but is used by many other coaches including Greg McMillan (mcmillanrunning.com) in USA.
An alternative approach is that of a “Funnel” approach which postulates the possibility of training coming from two different extremes and funnelling towards specificity. On one extreme, workouts start out with highly aerobic work such as longer steady runs and then progresses towards the specific race pace with workouts getting progressively faster and shorter. On the other extreme, workouts would start very short and very fast, such as 60m sprints, and then progress upwards to longer and slower workouts toward the specific workouts. This type of training has been made popular in particular by the Italian coaches, Renato Canova (“Marathon Training, A Scientific Approach – Canova R. & Arcelli E. 1999) and Luciano Gigliotti.
It should be pointed out that both these protocols have been evolved and used successfully in training for medium distance up to
marathon racing.
In our opinion the MAF training protocol (the “Base” period) leads naturally into a linear approach to periodization and therefore the adoption of the “Speed and Strength” period as the second portion of the macro periodization. This period should last from a minimum of two to a maximum of three months. The three fundamentals to be addressed in this period are Speed, Strength and Endurance. In this present article we shall deal with Speed and Strength. Endurance or Stamina will be dealt with in a separate article.
Speed
There is very little doubt among either coaches or researchers that the key to improving speed for middle to long distance events are workout sessions at the level of the Anaerobic or Lactate Threshold (AT or LT), within a range of just below and just above the threshold. The LT is important because it is a level (corresponding to a heart rate of approximately 80-90% of maximum heart rate, though the exact percentage depends on levels of fitness) which is easy to measure (usually considered to be approximately 4.0 mmol/L) where blood lactate levels remain in a steady state. Above this level the muscles will no longer burn a predominance of oxygen but will burn other substances, principally adenosine triphosphatate (ATP) and glycogen, which produce the lactic acid. Contrary to popular belief, lactate does not cause fatigue. In fact, lactate is a fuel source and likely delays fatigue. While acidosis may play some role in fatigue, it is other products such as Hydrogen ions which contribute to fatigue. Lactate actually helps by consuming those Hydrogen ions. When exercising above the anaerobic threshold the amount of time in which the organism can continue to maintain that exercise rate is limited to a period from 10 to a maximum of 60 minutes (depending upon the fitness level of the individual) due to fatigue, as a consequence of the build up of hydrogen ions and a reduction in blood pH.
Clearly the higher the level of heart rate and intensity that the athlete can maintain without entering into the anaerobic zone, the faster and longer he will be able to continue without excessive fatigue. This is an extremely important consideration for any athlete involved in long distance racing since the more oxygen that can be transported to the muscles, and this is in great part due to a higher heart rate and consequent blood flow, the better his performance.
Unlike the maximum heart rate (MHR) the anaerobic threshold (LT) can be improved by specific exercise. While the anaerobic threshold in untrained individuals can be as low as 70% of MHR, it can be as high as 92/93% of MHR in world-class athletes.
The most widely recognized form of specific training for improvement of the level of anaerobic threshold is interval training. The classic training sessions for this would be considered various forms of interval sessions ranging from 800m up to 5km, with the shorter intervals being conducted just above the threshold and the longer sessions just below the threshold. The importance of the recovery period between each interval is fundamental and these should be conducted preferably as a form of active recovery (walking or slow running). The length of the recovery period is inversely proportional to the intervals being performed so that a 800m session would have recovery periods between 60 – 100% of the time necessary for each interval, while a 3 or 5km session would have recovery periods of between 30 – 50% of the time necessary for each interval. As training progresses and the level of fitness improves the recovery periods can be progressively shortened. Other form of intervals can be identified in the use of 30 second intervals in which periods of threshold running for the duration of 30 seconds are followed by 30 seconds of active recovery. This type of training is usually organised within blocks of 10 minutes (10 x 30” threshold plus 10 x 30” active recovery) and can be conducted for series of individual or multiple blocks with longer recovery periods between each block.
Strength
The principle difference between trail running and road running is the type of terrain. While road running is essentially practiced on smooth surfaces with few, if any, asperities, trail running is done on uneven surfaces and with numerous climb and descents to be affronted.
Leg strength from the feet and ankles up to the hips becomes a fundamental element for the successful completion of a trail. Other neural factor elements, such as rate of force development, also come into play. The amount of time that any runner has to produce force while the foot is on the ground is very limited. If trail runners can be trained to increase their rate of force development, this allows for several beneficial adaptations. At slow speeds it means they are working at a lower percentage of their max force production capacities, which should extend endurance. During higher speeds, it also means that they can generate the necessary forces required to run at a faster pace. This means that ground contact times can be reduced, as not as much time is needed to generate the force resulting in improved Running Economy. Contemporarily the destruction of muscle fibres, consequent to long ascents and descents will be minor, due to the increased number and relative strength of the fibres.
There are two basic types of training, which can be used within this context – Hill Repeats and Dynamic Strength Exercises.
Hill repeats have the same structure of the interval sessions mentioned above where a period of running uphill is followed by a period of active recovery. In this speed and strength phase the length of the hills will be from short (60 – 150m) where the quantity of repetitions can vary from 6 to 10 and even be repeated in sets of 2 or 3 batteries, to medium (200 – 400m) where the repetitions will be limited from 4 to a maximum of 8. Longer hill repeats from 500 to 2000m should be used in the “specific peak performance” stage and will be examined in a future article. It is important to note that hill repeats are a particularly hard form of training for the tendons and ligaments of the lower leg and ankle and great care should be taken particularly during the first sessions. It is advisable to start with fewer repeats and build upwards with caution. Hill repeats can also be performed in the opposite direction where the interval is performed in descent. Other forms of hill repeats can be created by the creation of a square circuit in which two sides of the square, one climbing and the other descending, are utilised as the intervals and the other two sides, preferably on a flat terrain, can be used for the recovery phase.
Dynamic Strength Exercises are often referred to as “Plyometrics” however they are slightly different in that the process of accumulating energy in the muscle fibres, consequent to the downward jumping phase of “Plyometrics” (used principally by athletes who require explosive leg strength – skiing, basketball, volleyball, American football, rugby) is not necessarily present in the type of exercises which are more conducive to the action required for trail running.
Dynamic Strength exercises strengthen the same muscular structure as more static exercises such as lunges and squats while at the same time introducing an element of cardio vascular work. Moreover the continuous upwards movement, as found in step or stair climbing forces the body to utilise muscle stabilisers such as the gluteus medius, which are generally under utilised in normal running, due to the alternating balancing and activating of one leg while the other moves to the next step.
Examples of dynamic strength exercises are short repeats on steps (for example those to be found in a stadium), which can be performed as a continuous run, or jumping, both up and in descent. Variations can include sideways movements, hopping on individual legs and lower, lunge type movements. They could also take the form of jumping up and down from a small wall (30-50cm) or box on one or both legs.
Similar to hill repeats the dynamic strength exercises can create damage to ligaments, tendons and muscles and therefore caution is advised, particularly at the beginning. Starting from a session of 10’ work your way up to a maximum of 20 – 25’.